Module 2 - Willis Chapter 3 & Creswell Chapter 2 Thoughts

"In these chapters the authors continue to build on some of the foundational understandings we need to have before we can position and begin to understand how we should research a particular topic or context. Having this understanding first will greatly aid you in making important philosophical decisions about how you might approach your research.  You must be able to address these important concepts first so that you can choose the appropriate methodologies to answer the questions you have.  So we don't want to just say, I am a qualitative researcher and I will approach the context this way because the best way to answer your questions might be through a positivist lens, for example.  


So in these chapters, we learn some new concepts along with being refreshed on other ideas presented in previous chapters."  (Jensen, module 1 instructions)

The ideas in these chapters and my thoughts:

1. Positivism and Post-positivism - includes the assumption that the traditional scientific method is the only reasonable way to think about research (Willis, p. 72).  (Creswell, p. 20:  reductionist, logical, emphasis on empirical data colleciton, cause-and-effect oriented, deterministic based on a priori theories). Holds that reality is external to the human mind and the purpose of research is to find 'universals'.  Acceptable methods include the scientific method, with objective data.  Falsification is used as a method of testing theory, unlike positivism, in which data was intended to mirror reality - you discover the way things really are by conducting scientific research and if you do enough research, it can be used to  develop and verify theory. Postpositivists also believe that "you can never be sure that the next research study will not be the one that shows your theory is wrong" (Willis, p. 73) - case in point, the empiricist turkey! On the other hand, "if one study produces data that contradict your theory, that is enough to falsify your theory" (Willis, p. 73).  Keep in mind, however, that 'failures' could be the result of a number of different factors and don't necessarily mean that one's core theory is wrong (e.g. misinterpretation of the data). Postpostivists also believe that "any collection of data is based on theory" - which makes sense, because how can we engage in any action if not through our worldviews?  That is, the very way in which we decide what to focus on and what to ignore is influenced by the way in which we view the world, our particular lens, or paradigm.  "Data and the interpretation of data are theory dependent" (Willis, p. 73). Purpose of postpositivist research is to discover universals or laws (Willis, p. 73). Nature of reality - external, physical.  Believe problems can be framed in "clear-cut, unambiguous ways" (Willis, p. 75). 
2. Social Constructivism - Creswell - individuals seek understanding of the world in which they live; develop subjective meanings of their experiences that are varied and multiple.  Goal of research is to rely as much as possible on the participants' views of the situation (p.21). Rather than starting with a theory, inquirers generate or inductively develop a theory or pattern of meaning; more open-ended questions better; often address the processes of interactions among individuals; focus on specific contexts in which people live and work; position selves in research & acknowledge person interpretations that flow from experience
3. Advocacy/Participatory - Creswell - basic tenet - research should contain an action agenda for reform that may change the lives of participants, the institutions in which they live and work, or even the researchers' lives (p. 21); researchers provide a voice for participants, raising their consciousness and improving their lives; is emancipatory - helps unshackle people from the constraints of irrational and unjust structures; aim is to create political debate and discussion so that change will occur (p. 22); research is collaborative - inquiry with others, rather than on or to others - engage participants as active collaborators in their inquiries
4. Pragmatism - Creswell - focus on the outcomes of the research - the actions, situations and consequences of inquiry - concern with applications - what works, and solutions to problems; focus on problem being studied and the questions asked about the problem (pp. 22-23). Not committed to any one system of philosophy and reality; researchers have the freedom to choose methods, techniques, procedures that meet their purposes; external world, independent of the mind, as well as those lodged in the mind; multiple methods of data collection to best answer the research question, employing quantitative and qualitative data
5. Interpretive Communities/Positions (question - how do these align with paradigms/worldviews? ... p. 30 "worldviews narrow to interpretive or theoretical stances taken by the researcher.  These interpretive stances shape the individuals studied; the types of questions and problems examined; the appraoches to data collection; data analysis, writing, and evaluation; and the use of the information to change society or add to social justice ) - provide a pervasive lens or perspective on all aspects of a qualitative research project; participants in these interpretive projects represent underrepresented or marginalized groups (Creswell, p. 24).
1. a. postmodern theory - focus on changing ways of thinking rather than on calling for action based on these changes; family of theories and perspectives that have something in common; need to deconstruct texts in terms of language; 
2. b. feminist theory - approaches center and make problematic women's diverse situations and the institutions that frame those situations (p. 25); goal is to establish collaborative and nonexploitative relationships, to place the researcher within the study to avoid objectification, and to conduct research that is transformative; feminist researchers see gender as a basic organizing principle that shapes the conditions of their lives
3. c. critical theory - Creswell - p. 27 - concerned with empowering human beings to transcend the constraints placed on them by race, class, and gender. Researchers need to acknowledge their own power, engage in dialogues, and use theory to interpret or illuminate social action (p. 27). 
4. d. queer theory - relating to individual identity; work to challenge and undercut identity as singular, fixed, or normal (p. 29); less a methodology and more a focus of inquiry; 
5. e. disability theory - addresses the meaning of inclusion in schools an encompasses administrators, teachers, and parents who have children with disabilities; has moved from medical model to environmental response to individuals with a disability; more focus on disability as a dimension of human difference and not as a defect (p. 30); meaning is derived from social construction
6. Critical theory - ahhh!  I feel vindicated - "critical theory is probably the most difficult to understand and, as a result, the most difficult to coherently summarize" (WIllis, p. 81).  No wonder I find it most difficult to grasp!  Shares only one common foundation with PP - a belief in an external, knowable reality, however the form that reality takes is quite different in the two paradigms.  Purpose of research:  uncover local instances of universal power relationships and empower the oppressed; acceptable methods and data: subjective inquiry based on ideology and values; both quantitative and qualitative data are acceptable; meaning of data: interpreted through ideology; used to enlighten and emancipate; relationship of research to practice: integrated activities, research guides practice. 
7. Philosophical Assumptions (from Creswell, p. 16)
1. a. Ontological - nature of reality and its characteristics
2. b. Epistemological - nature of knowledge - how the researcher knows what she or he knows/ what counts as knowledge
3. c. axiological - the role of values in the research - all researchers bring values to a study, values and biases which are actively reported - researchers are 'positioned' in a study (p. 18)
4. d. rhetorical - the language of research - writing needs to be personal and literary in form - some of the language: "I, credibility, transferability, dependability, confirmability, validation, understanding, discover, meaning" - language becomes personal and literary
5. e. methodological - the methods used in the process - inductive, emerging, shaped by the researcher's experience in collecting and analyzing the data - logic is inductive, or ground-up, rather than handed down from theory
8. Paradigms or Worldviews - that take distinctive positions on 5 issues:  the nature of reality (ontology); the purpose of research; the methods of research and types of data that are acceptable; the types of meaning achieved and the way meaning is derived from the data gathered; and the relationships between research and practice (Willis, p. 72). Guba talks about differences in terms of 3 issues: ontological, epistemological, and methodological. Creswell: "a basic set of beliefs that guide action" (p. 19). "Individuals may also use multiple paradigms in their qualitative research that are compatible, such as constructionist and participatory worldviews" (p. 19).